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And former president George Bush marked the occasion of his 80th birthday by skydiving and has plans to skydive again for his 85th birthday mueller sports medicine buy discount endep online. What factors might account for such differences and what do we know about staying healthy in older adulthood Exercise can improve cardiovascular and respiratory functioning medications dialyzed out effective endep 25mg, slow bone loss medicine 93 7338 discount 10mg endep mastercard, and strengthen muscles treatment 002 cheap endep 25 mg otc. In one study, older athletes (average age 69 years) were compared with older nonathletes on several physiological measures following exercise. The athletes showed better oxygen uptake capacity and greater cardiovascular stamina than the nonathletes (Jungblut et al. Exercise can make aging adults feel less stressed and happier, and it can enhance their cognitive functioning (Barnes et al. Physical activity is also associated with a lower incidence of depression among older adults (Lampinen, Heikkinen, & Ruoppila, 2000). Overall, it is estimated that regular exercise by older adults can delay the onset of physical disabilities by up to 7 years (Vita et al. Even frequent joggers gain weight and add inches to their waists as they enter middle age (Williams, 1997). True, people who exercise generally weigh less and have slimmer waists than those who do not, but a 30-year-old man who runs 20 to 30 miles a week until he is 50 would add almost 2 inches to his waist anyway; he would have to run farther each year to avoid it. To try to beat aging, then, it is not enough to remain active; a person must become more active over the years (Williams, 1997). Another factor that contributes to health and wellness is the presence or absence of disease. Extreme bone loss in later life results from osteoporosis (meaning "porous bone"), a disease in which a serious loss of minerals leaves the bones fragile and easily fractured. Nearly one-third of elderly adults who fracture a hip die within 1 year; hip fractures are also a leading cause of nursing home admissions (Whitbourne, 2005). Not surprisingly, adults who have experienced a fall often begin to restrict their activities out of fear of falling again. Unfortunately, less activity can make them more vulnerable because it can lead to further decreases of muscle and bone mass (Whitbourne, 2005). Osteoporosis is a special problem for older women, who never had as much bone mass as men and whose bones tend to thin rapidly after menopause. European and Asian women with light frames, those who smoke, and those with a family history of osteoporosis are especially at risk. For some older adults, joint disease is deforming and painful and limits their activities. The older person who can no longer fasten buttons, stoop to pick up dropped items, or even get into and out of the bathtub may easily feel incompetent and dependent (Whitbourne, 2005). Successful Aging Everyone wants to age "successfully"; that is, maintain good health and be free of diseases that might limit physical and mental skills and the ability to actively participate in desired daily activities (Rowe & Kahn, 1998). Older adults want to be as independent as possible and pursue a lifestyle that makes them feel satisfied. In 1986, David Snowdon (2002) began the Nun Study with 678 nuns ranging in age from 75 to 106 years. Snowdon, an epidemiologist, chose to study the nuns because they were very similar with respect to socioeconomic status, housing, health care, and diet. In this remarkable longitudinal study, participants underwent annual mental and physical testing, provided complete access to a lifetime of health records, and agreed to donate their brains for examination following their deaths. The first finding to emerge from the Nun Study was that level of education affected longevity and health. Those with a college degree lived longer and were more likely to remain independent. Another major finding was that the nuns who were active, both physically and mentally, lived longer and healthier than nuns who were not as active.
To what extent is human development universal and to what extent is it culture specific For example medications kidney patients should avoid best buy endep, a stage theorist might claim that virtually all children enter a new stage in their intellectual development as they enter adolescence or that most adults treatment 3 cm ovarian cyst buy discount endep, sometime around age 40 adhd medications 6 year old cheap endep 10mg visa, experience a midlife crisis in which they raise major questions about their lives medicine research purchase endep 10 mg visa. Paths of development followed in one culture may be quite different from paths followed in another culture. For example, preschool children in the United States sometimes believe that dreams are real but give up this belief as they age. By contrast, children raised in the Atayal culture of Taiwan have been observed to become more and more convinced as they get older that dreams are real, most likely because that is what adults in their culture believe (Kohlberg, 1966b). Within a single culture, developmental change may differ from subcultural group to subcultural group, from family to family, or from individual to individual. As American poet Mark Van Doren once said, "There are two statements about human beings that are true: that all human beings are alike, and that all are different" (cited in Norenzayan & Heine, 2005, p. Now that you are familiar with some major issues of human development that different theories resolve in different ways (see Table 2. Do humans actively shape their own environments and contribute to their own development- or are they passively shaped by forces beyond their control Do humans change gradually and in quantitative ways-or do they progress through qualitatively different stages and change dramatically into different beings Is development similar from person to person and from culture to culture-or do pathways of development vary considerably depending on the social contexts The major issues confronted by developmental theorists are nature and nurture, the goodness and badness of human nature, activity and passivity, continuity and discontinuity, and universality and context specificity. Because you have undoubtedly been introduced to this theory before, we cover it only briefly. Instincts and Unconscious Motives Central to Freudian psychoanalytic theory is the notion that humans have basic biological urges or drives that must be satisfied. Freud viewed the newborn as a "seething cauldron," an inherently selfish creature "driven" by instincts, or inborn biological forces that motivate behavior. These biological instincts are the source of the psychic (or mental) energy that fuels human behavior and that is channeled in new directions over the course of human development. Freud strongly believed in unconscious motivation-the power of instincts and other inner forces to influence behavior without awareness. Professor Whitehead has developed a theory of aging emphasizing (1) nature and nurture, (2) the goodness of human nature, (3) activity, (4) continuity, and (5) context specificity in development. As a child develops, this psychic energy is divided among three components of the personality: the id, the ego, and the superego. At birth, all psychic energy resides in the id-the impulsive, irrational part of the personality whose mission is to satisfy the instincts. It seeks immediate gratification, even when biological needs cannot be realistically or appropriately met. The second component of the personality is the ego, the rational side of the individual that tries to find realistic ways of gratifying the instincts. According to Freud (1933), the ego begins to emerge during infancy when psychic energy is diverted from the id to energize cognitive processes such as perception, learning, and problem solving. The hungry toddler may be able to do more than merely cry when she is hungry; she may be able to draw on the resources of the ego to hunt down Dad, lead him to the kitchen, and say "cookie. As the ego matures further, children become more capable of postponing their pleasures until a more appropriate time and of devising logical and realistic strategies for meeting their needs. The ego must strike a balance between the opposing demands of the id and the superego while accommodating the realities of environment. For example, a person diagnosed as an antisocial personality, or sociopath, who routinely lies and cheats to get his way, may have a weak superego, whereas a married woman who cannot undress in front of her husband may have an overly strong superego, perhaps because she was made to feel ashamed about any interest she took in her body as a young girl. Through analysis of the dynamics operating among the three parts of the personality, Freud and his followers attempted to describe and understand individual differences in personality and the origins of psychological disorders.
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This book is about the development of humans like Ella Miller-and you-from conception to death medicine and health order endep 25 mg online. Among the fascinating and important questions it addresses are these: How do infants perceive the world around them and how do their minds develop Why do some college students have more trouble than others deciding on a major or committing themselves to a serious relationship Do most adults experience a midlife crisis in which they question what they have done with their lives How do people typically change physically and mentally as they age treatment quadriceps strain cheap endep uk, and how does retirement affect them It also takes on more fundamental questions: How in the world does a single fertilized egg cell evolve into an adult human being Probably so symptoms 22 weeks pregnant buy endep 50 mg mastercard, because we are all developing persons interested in ourselves and the other developing people around us medicine 773 buy cheap endep 75mg online. Most college students want to understand how they and those they know have been affected by their experiences, how they have changed over the years, and where they may be headed. Many students also have practical motivations for learning about human development-for example, a desire to be a better parent or to pursue a career as a psychologist, nurse, teacher, or other human services professional. This introductory chapter lays the groundwork for the remainder of the book by addressing some basic questions: How should we think about development and influences on it Defining Development Development can be defined as systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death, or from "womb to tomb. Development also involves continuities, ways in which we remain the same or continue to reflect our past selves. The systematic changes and continuities of interest to students of human development fall into three broad domains: 1. The growth of the body and its organs, the functioning of physiological systems, physical signs of aging, changes in motor abilities, and so on. Changes and continuities in perception, language, learning, memory, problem solving, and other mental processes. Changes and carryover in personal and interpersonal aspects of development, such as motives, emotions, personality traits, interpersonal skills and relationships, and roles played in the family and in the larger society. In short, development involves gains, losses, neutral changes, and continuities in each phase of the life span. Conceptualizing the Life Span If you were to divide the human life span into periods, how would you do it You will want to keep them in mind as you read this book, because we will constantly be speaking of infants, preschoolers, school-age children, adolescents, and young, middle-aged, and older adults. Age is only a rough indicator of developmental status; there are huge differences in functioning and personality among individuals of the same age. Interestingly, the most diverse of all age groups appears to be elderly adults (Andrews, Clark, & Luszcz, 2002). Age-like gender, race, and other significant human characteristics-means different things in different societies. Each society has its own ways of dividing the life span and of treating the people in different age groups. Each socially defined age group in a society-called an age grade or age stratum-is assigned different statuses, roles, privileges, and responsibilities. Segregating children into grades in school based on age is one form of age grading. Just as high schools have "elite" seniors and "lowly" freshmen, whole societies are 2. Even though developmentalists often specialize in one of these three aspects of development, they appreciate that humans are whole beings and that changes in one area affect the others. The baby who develops the ability to crawl, for example, has new opportunities to develop her mind by exploring kitchen cabinets and to hone her social skills by trailing her parents from room to room. Many people picture tremendous positive gains in capacity from infancy to young adulthood, little change during early adulthood and middle age, and loss of capacities in the later years. This stereotyped view of the life span is largely false, but it also has some truth in it, especially with respect to biological development. Traditionally, biologists have defined growth as the physical changes that occur from conception to maturity.
Clearly medications like abilify discount endep 25mg without a prescription, we must broaden our image of the family to include the many dual-career medicine 3d printing order 50mg endep, single-parent medicine 1920s buy endep cheap, reconstituted severe withdrawal symptoms endep 10mg for sale, childless, and other nontraditional families that exist today. We must also avoid assuming that families that do not fit the stereotypical family model are deficient. Summing Up Family systems theorists view the family as a system with subsystems, embedded in other systems (as Bronfenbrenner emphasizes), changing over time (as family life cycle theorists note), and changing in a changing world. Changes in the last half century include trends toward more single adults, postponed marriage, fewer children, more women working, more divorce, more single-parent families, more children in poverty, more reconstituted families, more years without children, more multigenerational families, and fewer caregivers for aging adults. Given increased diversity of family forms, the stereotypical nuclear family is hard to find. If present trends continue, do you think the family will be stronger or weaker in 2050 than it is now Gender stereotypes would suggest that fathers are not cut out to care for infants and young children; however, the evidence suggests that they are (Lamb & Tamis-Lemonda, 2004; Parke, 1996). Researchers repeatedly find that fathers and mothers are more similar than different in the ways they interact with infants and young children. For example, when mothers and fathers are observed feeding their babies, fathers prove to be no less able than mothers to perform this caregiving task effectively and to ensure that the milk is consumed (Parke & Sawin, 1976). We have no basis for thinking that moth- Fathers are just as capable as mothers of sensitive, responsive parenting. Fathers and mothers differ in both the quantity and the style of the parenting they provide (Lamb & TamisLemonda, 2004; Marsiglio et al. Consider first differences in quantity: Mothers spend more time with children than fathers do (Bianchi, 2000). This gender difference is common across cultures, causing some to argue that it has been built into our genes during the course of evolution; it may even be related to the biological fact that mothers are more certain their children are theirs than fathers are (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2002). True, fathers today are more involved with their children than fathers of the past were (Marsiglio et al. Some are even sharing responsibility for child care equally with their spouses rather than just "helping," especially if they hold egalitarian views about gender roles (Bulanda, 2004; Deutsch, 2001). Mothers and fathers differ in their typical styles of interacting with young children. When mothers interact with their babies, a large proportion of their time is devoted to caregiving: offering food, changing diapers, wiping noses, and so on. They specialize in tickling, poking, bouncing, and surprising infants, whereas mothers hold, talk to , and play quietly with infants (Laflamme, Pomerleau, & Malcuit, 2002; Neville & Parke, 1997). Yet fathers are able to adopt a "motherlike" caregiver role if they have primary responsibility for their children, so their playful parenting may be more about being in the role of the "backup" parent than about being male rather than female (Phares, 1999). Fathers contribute to healthy development by supporting their children financially, whether they live together or not (Marsiglio et al. Babies are likely to be more socially competent if they are securely attached to both parents than if they are securely attached to just one (Main & Weston, 1981). In addition, children whose fathers are warm and involved with them tend to become high achievers in school (Cabrera et al. Finally, children generally have fewer psychological disorders and problems if their fathers are caring, involved, and effective parents than if they are not (Cabrera et al. This is because parents have indirect effects on their children through their ability to influence the behavior of their spouses. More generally, indirect effects within the family are instances in which the relationship or interaction between two individuals is modified by the behavior or attitudes of a third family member. For example, mothers who have close, supportive relationships with their husbands tend to interact more patiently and sensitively with their babies than do mothers who are experiencing marital tension and who feel that they are raising their children largely without help (Cox et al. As you can imagine, infant development goes best when parents get along well and truly coparent, or work as a team (Parke & Buriel, 2006). Accepting, responsive parents are affectionate and often smile at, praise, and encourage their children, although they also let children know when they misbehave. Less accepting and responsive parents are often quick to criticize, belittle, punish, or ignore their children and rarely communicate to children that they are loved and valued.